history

succession

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HOUSE OF WESSEX

Egbert 802-839

Aethelbald 855-860

Aethelbert 860-866

Aethelred 866-871

Alfred the Great 871-899

Edward the Elder 899-925

Athelstan 925-940

Edmund the Magnificent 940-946

Eadred 946-955

Eadwig (Edwy) All-Fair 955-959

Edgar the Peaceable 959-975

Edward the Martyr 975-978

Ethelred II (Ethelred the Unready) 979-1013 and 1014-1016

Edmund II (Ironside) 1016

DANISH

Svein Forkbeard 1014

Cnut(Canute) 1016-1035

Harold I 1035-1040

Hardicnut 1040-1042

SAXONS

Edward (the Confessor) 1042-1066

Harold II 1066

NORMANS

William I 1066-1087

William II 1087-1100

Henry I 1100-1135

Stephen 1135-1154

Empress Matilda (Queen Maud) 1141

PLANTAGENETS

Henry II 1154-1189

Richard I 1189-1199

John 1199-1216

Henry III 1216-1272

Edward I 1272-1307

Edward II 1307-1327

Edward III 1327-1377

Richard II 1377-1399

HOUSE OF LANCASTER

Henry IV 1399-1413

Henry V 1413-1422

Henry VI 1422-1461

HOUSE OF YORK

Edward IV 1461-1483

Edward V 1483

Richard III 1483-1485

TUDORS

Henry VII 1485-1509

Henry VIII 1509-1547

Edward VI 1547-1553

Jane Grey 1553

Mary I 1553-1558

Elizabeth I 1558-1603

STUARTS

James I 1603-1625

Charles I 1625-1649

COMMONWEALTH

Oliver Cromwell 1649-1658

Richard Cromwell 1658-1659

STUARTS (restored)

Charles II 1660-1685

James II 1685-1688

William III 1689-1702

Mary II 1689-1694

Anne 1702-1714

HOUSE OF HANOVER

George I 1714-1727

George II 1727-1760

George III 1760-1820

George IV 1820-1830

William IV 1830-1837

Victoria 1837-1901

major figures

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Abraham Darby inventor in the iron industry

Agricola governor of Roman Britain, consolidated the early conquests, doubled the size of the provinces

Alfred the Great king of Wessex, organized resistance against Vikings, 1st national defense system, promoted education

Anne Queen 1702-1714; principally interested in church affairs

Anthony Ashley Cooper 1st Earl of Shaftesbury; served the Commonwealth, then James II; leader of the whigs, backed the Test Act of 1673; exploited the Popish Plot; managed the Exclusion Crisis

Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington; soldier and statesman; military campaigns, invaded southern France

Arthur Young writer on agriculture and rural life; advocate of agricultural improvement

Arthur Romano-British general, fought against Anglo-Saxon conquest 5-6th cc., famous hero and legend

Baron Sidney Godolphin treasury commissioner; later Lord Treasurer; aided the victories of Marlborough

Black Prince nickname of Edward of Woodstock, Prince of Wales; hero of the Hundred Years' War; victory at Poitiers, sacked Limoges

Charles I king 1625-1649; fastidious, dignified, pious and cultured; alienated the political nation

Charles II king 1660-1685; limited by the 1641 reforms of the Restoration settlement; subservience to France

Charles James Fox leader of the whigs; principal opponent of William Pitt the Younger

Charles Townshend leading whig politician; secretary of state under Walpole

Duke of Monmouth illegitimate son of Charles II, claimant to the throne; fought James II, was defeated and executed

Edmond Cartwright Oxford scholar and Anglican clergyman; invented the power-loom

Edmund Burke philosopher, politician and orator; Member of Parliament, whig party

Edward Hyde 1st Earl of Clarendon; royalist leader in the Long Parl.; Charles I' adviser; chief minister to Charles II

Edward I king 1272-1307; 'Hammer of the Scots'; conquest of Wales; pursuit of law and order; legalitas - pursuit of legal rectitude

Edward III king 1327-1377; warrior king; Treaty of Bénigny

Edward the Confessor king 1042-1066; Norman origin, enemy of Cnut's Anglo-Danish aristocracy, strengthened Norman elements in the church and state, succeeded by William the Conqueror

Elizabeth I Queen 1558-1603; daughter of Henry VIII and Boleyn Anne

Geoffrey Chaucer most important figure of English literature before Shakespeare; narrative poet and metrist

George I king 1714-1727; succeeded after the Act of Settlement; loyal to whigs; Hanoverian interests

George II king 1727-1760; preoccupied with Hanoverian interests

George IV king 1820-1830; before that Prince Regent

George Stephenson invented the steam locomotive

George Villiers 1st Duke of Buckingham; favourite of James I and Charles I; near monopoly of royal favor and patronage; corrupt and grossly incompetent, assassinated

Gerrard Winstanley leader of the Diggers; favoring something near egalitarian communism

Guy Fawkes leader of the Gunpowder Plot, executed

Henry Cort industrial inventor

Henry I king 1100-1135; conquest of Normandy, battle of Tenchebrai; nominated Matilda as successor; maintains firm peace; 'Lyon of Justice'

Henry II king 1154-1189; maintaining and strengthening his Angevin empire

Henry Pelham leader of whigs after Walpole's resignation; statesman of integrity and financial ability; supported by both the king and the Parl.; concluded the Spanish war of Succession; policy of retrenchment and mild reform

Henry Purcell composer, organist at Westminster Abbey

Henry VII king 1485-1509; defensive but pacific foreign policy, attention to financial affairs, built on the foundations of a medieval monarchy

Henry VIII king 1509-1547; gave power to favourites Cardinal Wolsey and Thomas Cromwell; six wives, no worthy successor

Horatio Nelson admiral; commander of the army during the French Revolutionary Wars and the early Napoleonic wars; killed in action

James Hargreaves inventor of the spinning-jenny

James I king 1603-1625; king of Scotland; popular in Scotland, disliked in England

James II king 1685-1688; efforts to re-Catholicize England; provoked the Glorious Revolution

James MacAdam revolutionaized roads

James Stanhope 1st Earl of Stanhope; secretary of state; successful military career; Prime Minister; leading whig figure

James Watt invented an improved steam engine and produced engines

Jethro Tull invented the machine-drill

John Ball egalitarian teacher during Peasant's Rising of 1381; deduced the equality of men from their common descent from Adam

John Churchill 1st Duke of Marlborough; general and statesman, military commander; crushed Monmouth's rebellion, victorious during the war of the Spanish Succession; influence over Anne; raised Britain to a leading European power

John Duns Scotus Franciscan scholastic philosopher, called the Subtle Doctor; Founder of Scotism in Roman Catholicism; argued that knowledge of finite truths rests on the ultimate Truth, God

John Lilburne passionate writer against all arbitrary government; leader of the Levellers; imprisoned

John Locke philosopher; justified constitutional monarchy; empirism; forerunner of English Enlightenment

John Milton poet, pamphleter on church governement; wrote Paradise Lost and Regained; freedom of the press

John of Gaunt leader in the Hundred Years' War and unpopular home government

John Pym Member of Parliament; joined the opposition; leader of the Commons; organized Parliament's wartime finance and engineered the Scottish alliance

John Wesley founder of Methodism; tireless evangelist; stressed the redeeming love of Christ and the necessity of personal faith and preaching in the open air

John Wyclif leading Oxford scholar; questioned the whole structure of the Church and its teachings; inspired the first English Bible; basis of the Lollard movement

John king 1199-1216; resented by the barons; signed the Magna Charta; nickname the Lackland

Josiah Wedgwood opened a china factory and revolutionized the making of chine; successful entrepreneur

Mary, Queen of Scots Scottish Queen 1542-1567

Napoleon Bonaparte French military hero and later emperor; quarrles with England, defeated at Waterloo

Old Pretender son of James II; claimant to the throne

Oliver Cromwell former Member of Parliament; army career; protagonist in the execution of the king; became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth

Richard I king 1189-1199; reputed as a soldier and crusader; spent only 6 months of his reign in England

Richard II king 1377-1399; personal tyranny - deposed, imprisoned, probably murdered

Robert Bakewell important breeder of sheep and horses

Robert Cecil principal secretary attempted as lord treasurer to tackle the king's financial problems

Robert Curthose Duke of Normandy; eldest son of William the Conqueror; took part in the first Crusade; lost Normandy to Henry I at Tenchebrai

Robert Devereux 2nd Earl of Essex; favourite of Queen Elizabeth, failure as a politician

Robert Dudley Earl of Leicester; lover of Elizabeth; leading councillor to the Queen

Robert Grosseteste English prelate, founded Oxford Franciscan school; studied Aristotle; basis for scholastic thought of Thomas Aquinas

Robert Harley 1st Earl of Oxford; Tory leader under William and Anne; brought down the Whigs; principal minister

Robert of Belleme Earl of Shrewsbury; most powerful Anglo-Norman opponent of Henry I; expelled in 1102

Roger Bacon English scholastic Oxford philosopher; called the Admirable Doctor; active interest in natural science, experiments and direct observation; considered science as complementary to and not opposed to faith

Samuel Crompton inventor of the 'mule'

Simon de Monfort promoter of the provisions of Oxford, led the movement to enforce them; popular hero

Sir Christopher Wren outstanding architect; reconstruction of London after the Great Fire; St. Paul's Cathedral

Sir Francis Bacon philosopher of science, essayist, historian and lawyer; Lord Chancellor under James I

Sir Francis Drake greatest explorer of Elizabethan times; circumnavigation of the world

Sir Francis Walsingham sternly Puritan organizer of Elizabeth I's intelligence service and secretary of state

Sir Richard Arkwright invented the water-frame

Sir Robert Walpole 1st Earl of Orford; leading whig politician; multiple military and political titles; master of parliamentary tactics; secured peace, stability and low taxes; shaped the office of Prime Minister

Sir Thomas More lawyer and scholar, known for Utopia; Lord Chancellor - pursued heretics and opposed Henry's divorce; arrested, tried and executed

St. Anselm Archbishop of Canterbury; theological treatise on existence of God and incarnation; dispute over episcopal investitures

St. Thomas Becket first chancellor, Archbishop of Canterbury; martyr, later canonized

Stephen Langton Archbishop of Canterbury; influential figure of King John's opposition; supported Henry III

Tacitus Roman historian, wrote Germania about Germanic tribes

Thomas Bradwardine Archbishop, scholastic philosopher

Thomas Coke Earl of Leicester; Member of Parliament; advocate of enclosure

Thomas Cranmer Archbishop of Canterbury; 'Architect' of the Church of England; moderate Protestant, burned

Thomas Cromwell principal minister of Henry VIII; responsible for the Henrician Reformation, dissolution of monasteries and the Tudor revolution in government

Thomas Hobbes philosopher; first great English political theorist; rationalist materialism; citizens should revolt in the case of a monarch's failure in his duties

Thomas Osborne 1st Earl of Danby; chief minister to Charles II; stabilized royal finances and gained support for the crown

Thomas Paine libertarian pamphleteer and revolutionary

Thomas Pelham-Holmes Duke of Newcastle; agent of government patronage for Walpole and Pelham; presided over the greatest electoral empire of the period

Thomas Wentworth 1st Earl of Strafford; president of the Council of the North; Lord Deputy of Ireland; policy of ruthlessly efficient government; executed

Thomas Wolsey Archbishop of York; Lord Chancellor; Cardinal; dominated secular and regular government; courts of chancery and Star Chamber; diplomat

Titus Oates invented and led the Popish Plot

Wat Tyler chief spokesman of the rebellion during the Peasant's Rising in 1381; killed by the lord mayor of London

William Caxton English printer, issued first dated book in England; translated works, wrote prologues, epilogues and additions

William Cecil Lord Burghley; principal secretary to Elizabeth I; Lord Treasurer; indispensable partner of the Queen's during her reign

William II Rufus king 1087-1100; hated tyrant, despolier of Church; killed, probably by Henry I

William Langland author of Piers Plowman

William Laud extreme Arminian thoughts; power in church and state under Charles I; High Church uniformity and supported arbitrary measures; executed

William of Normandy nickname Bastard or the Conqueror; king 1066-1087; fought against native rebellions, strong head of state, fought French over Normandy

William of Ockham English Franciscan scholastic philosopher; argued that reality exists solely in individual things and universals are merely abstract signs

William Pitt the Elder 1st Earl of Chatham; major architect of the British empire; wartime genius

William Pitt the Younger Prime Minister; war leader, negotiated three European coalitions against France

Young Pretender son of the Old Pretender; claimant to the British throne; headed the unsuccessful Jacobite rising

glossary

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absenteeism practice of landlords and parsons habitually living away from home

Act for the Union of enacted in 1707; two kingdoms united under the name of Great Britain

act of homage personal submission of a tenant to a lord, tenant serves the lord, lord warrants his tenant

Act of Settlement secured the Protestant Succession to the throne

aisle literal meaning 'wing'; sideways extensions of the western and main body of the church

Annals of Agriculture central organ of agricultural inventors

annates payments to the pope of benefice by bishops on appointment

apse rounded or polygonal and generally eastern part of a church, transept or chapel

Arminians churchmen who reacted against rigid Calvinism, followers of Jacob Arminius

assize decision of a seated assembly; royal declaration of statutory force or judicial process

Baccalaureus Artium BA, Bachelor of Arts; university degree of medieval origin

bailiff King's representative in a district (mayor, sheriff, etc)

Bank of England est. as the first joint-stock bank of England; central bank and holder of English gold reserves

baron holder of military or other honourable service from the king; later restricted to the king's barons

benefices lands granted as a reward for past services

Bill of Rights passed by the Convention Parl.; Declaration of Rights; ancient rights and liberties of the nation; basis of constitutional settlement of the Glorious Revolution

Black Death pandemic of the lethal bubonic plague, spread by rats; invaded Britain in 1348

Book of Common Prayer official liturgy of the Church of England; Acts of Uniformity included

borough medieval combination of a trading center and defended area

Bretwalda early king of England, concept of overlordship in Old English

burgess inhabitant of a borough with full municipal rights - citizen

burh fortified dwelling, defended town, large camp

cancellarius custodian of the Great Seal, head of the chancery, prepares and issues documents for central government

castrum castle, fortress

Cavaliers nickname for Royalists during Civil War; Cavalier Parliament at Restoration

ceorl free peasant

chantry place in a church where prayers were to be said for the soul of the founder who left a fund for that purpose

chapter general meeting of members of monastic or knightly orders

charter document regarding a grant, normally permanent and of land, priviliges, etc.

choir part of the church for the use of singers between the nave and the altar's place

civitas citizens as a corporate body; the state

Clarendon Code four acts named after Charles II's minister; religious persecution

coalition temporary alliance of statesmen, political parties, etc; for a specific purpose

colonia urban settlement, Roman legionaries, lived in town, held agr. land outside, self-government

Combination Acts two acts that forbade the combining of two or more people for the purpose of obtaining a wage increase, better working conditions, etc

Common Wealth English republic est. after the execution of Charles I; ruled by the Rump and a Council of State

continental system economic warfare practiced by Napoleon against Britain, aimed at ruining British trade by excluding it from the continental trade

Conventicle unlawful secret meeting of Noncomformists

copyholder owner of land on conditions agreed with the lord of the manor; possesses a copy of the manorial court roll entry

coroner royal officer in charge of a sheriff, carries out the preliminaries of criminal justice

Crusades Christian expeditions to recover the Holy Land from Mohammedans

Curia Regis King's Court - monastic household and court

customary tenants persons holding their land by a great variety of tenure

Danegeld extraordinary tax assessed on land to buy peace from Danes

demesne land kept in lord's own hand

Deuteronomy 5th book of the Old Testament; enables the surviving brother of a man to marry his widow - Henry VIII

Diggers small group of extreme radicals founded by Winstanley; restoration of land to the people; political revolution must be based on a social revolution

Dissenters Protestants not comforming to the usages of the Church of England

divide et impera divide and conquer

duke highest hereditary title of nobility outside of the royal family

ealdorman official of noble rank placed in charge of a shire

earl originally holders of important office, ruling substantial territories; later a hereditary title

Enclosure Acts Acts of Parl. enacting the hedging or fencing-in of formerly open-field or common pasture land

enclosure of the Commons which had formerly been for the use of villagers

enclosure enclosure of open fields by gathering together scattered strips and fencing off each man's parcel

England and Scotland

engrossment adding farm to farm; steady accumulation of land

escheator royal officer administering forfeited goods and land

exchequer financial department of Curia Regis

excise customs, duties on goods for domestic consumption

Exclusion Crisis political crisis produced by Whig attempts to pass bills; in order to exclude James II from the throne; replacement being Duke of Monmouth

favourite person chosen as intimate by the king or superior and unduly favored

feudum land granted to vassals, also called fief

fief feudal benefice, territory held in fee

Fifth Monarchy Men extremist sect believing in the forecoming of the rule of Christ

flying buttress external arch springing over the roof of an aisle, supporting the upper part of the nave wall

flying-shuttle industrial invention, part of the loom

franchise originally a body of freemen in a manor, borough, etc; later rights and duties of freemen, right to vote particularly

freeholders owners of land or buildings for an unlimited time and without any conditions, paying a token rent and enjoying security of tenure

fyrd local militia

geneat 'companion', free men forming peasant aristocracy

gerefa royal executive officer - on the lookout for smugglers

glebe land held by the incumbent of a parish church, part of the endowment of a church

governor military, judicial and civil affairs of Britain, appointed by emperor

guild fraternity with religious, social and commercial functions; protected and monopolized trade within a town or region

Habeas Corpus Act passed in 1679; guarantee of right to a free trial; against improper use of the prerogative

Hearth Tax national tax imposed on a hearth

heregeld money to maintain a standing military and naval force

heriot death duty, best beast paid to the lord of the manor

housecarle specialized fighter, introduced by King Cnut, loyal to the king

hundred subdivision of the shire - in Danish areas, called wapentake

impeachment criminal trial in Parl. at the Commons' instigation

in loco parentis in place of a parent

in statu pupillari in pupillary state

Independents collective term for separatist sects, particularly Congregationalists and Baptists; liberty of thought and belief; includes Noncomformists

investiture delivery of a man's due by grant, election, etc.

Ironsides force of cavalry raised by Cromwell; yeomen, freeholders and Independents

itinerant justices justices traveling from place to place on circuit

Jacobites supporters of the claim to throne of James II, his son and grandson; all their major plots were crushed

jury body of persons summoned by a royal officer to give true and unbiased answers to specific questions, chosen from reputable locals

justices of the peace unpaid local gentlemen; take an active part in maintaining law and order by reporting violations

justiciar viceroy of Norman and Plantagenet kings, stands below the king but above the departments of government, governed in king's name when he is not in the country

knight mainstay of English medieval society; required to join the feudal army

laissez-faire economic principle encouraging free enterprise and competition

League of Augsburg directed against France; treaty signed by Holy Roman Emperor, Kings of Sweden and Spain, Electors of Bavaria, Saxony and the Palatinate and Holland

leaseholder holder of land using it on the basis of a written agreement for a certain time in return for rent

Levellers extreme democrats of Civil War and Commonwealth period; republicanism, manhood suffrage, toleration, abolition of the House of Lords

Lollards followers of John Wyclif; political movement based at the University of Oxford

Long Parliament summoned by Charles I; was made into the Rump; later became the convention parliament

longbow medieval weapon made of yew wood; capable of shooting six yard-long arrows in a minute with considerable force

Lord Protector Cromwell's title during the Protectorate; est. by the Instrument of Government

Magister Artium MA, Master of Arts; university degree higher than BA

magistrate public figure, elected by senate, dispense justice, maintain public buildings

Magnum Concilium Great Council, assembly of the king and his vassals, discussion of judicial and state affairs

marquess/marques nobleman ranking between duke and earl

martial law rule by the army, national guard or militia; military courts used instead of civil authorities

masque form of theatrical play performed in 16-17th cc for monarchs or noblemen; written in poetry with music, dancing and songs

Methodism doctrine, polity and worship of Protestant denominations; originated under John Wesley; study by rule and method

monopolies sole right to sell commodities granted to reward individuals or raise money for the crown

'mule' invention of wool and cotton industry

municipium town, rights of self-government, inhabitants almost Roman citizens

nave ship, western and main body of a church

New Leicesters new breed of sheep

New Model Army est. by Parliamentary ordinance with a majority of Independents; cavalry and artillery; led by Cromwell

Noncomformists same as Dissenters

parish district that has its own church and clergyman

parliament supreme legislature comprising of the sovereign and the Houses of Lords and Commons; emerged from the Curia Regis; assembly to settle matters of unusual importance; other functions - give advice to administration and raise taxes

patronage right to appoint to important positions, especially without regard for their ability

Pax Romana Roman peace

peer member of one of the degrees of nobility in the UK (duke, marquis, earl, viscount, baron)

pier a mass of masonry from which an arch springs

pluralism holding more than one office, especially benefice, at a time

pointed arch ornamental curve, supports the vaulting

Poor Law before relief for the poor was a charitable obligation of the church; in Tudor times the responsibility was the parish'; embodied in an act because of the failure of former practices

Popish Plot supposed Catholic plot to murder Charles II and put his brother James on the throne; provoked the Exclusion Crisis

praemunire practice of taking to foreign courts any matter cognizable in English law

predestination Biblical: all things foreknown and foreordained by God; in Catholic theology: conduction of God's rational creatures to 'eternal life'

presbyter official person elected to serve on the governing body of the church

Presbyterians parliamentarian politicians in Civil War times who opposed religious toleration; sympathetic to Scots; supported a Presbyterian church

primogeniture right of succession for the first-born

privateering licensing privare ships to attack their country's enemies in return of a share of the booty

proctor principal disciplinary officer of medieval English universities

procurator provincial civil servant, collecting taxes, paying out revenues

Protectorate rule of Cromwell; ended with the abdication of Cromwell's son after his failure to secure the support of the army

Puritans extreme Protestants in the Church of England, including Presbyterians and Independents; high sense of duty and morality

quadrivium four medieval university courses - Arithmetic, Geometry, Music and Astronomy

quarter session hearing of criminal charges by justices of the peace four times a year

reeve local representative and officer of his lord

regency delegation of one or more people in the case of illness, minority or absence of a monarch

rib vault archer roof supported and adorned by long raised pieces of thicker material

Rocket locomotive built by George Stephenson, operated by steam power

Romanesque prevailing style in 11-13th cc Europe, mainly eclesiastical

rotation in agriculture growing of different grains in regular order to avoid exhausting the soil

Roundheads name applied to Puritans and Parliamentarians during and after Civil War times; originally a derogatory meaning

royal absolutism political principle stating that complete power should be in the hands of the monarch

royal prerogative recognized rights and privileges, undefined powers of the monarchy; mostly used by Tudors

Royal Society society founded by eminent scientists including Boyle and Wren; experimental center

Royalists supporters of the monarch and the Anglican church during Civil War

Rump remaining members of the Long Parliament; originally included 60 members, later more populous

scholasticism study of general questions starting from ancient Greek writings and Christian teaching

scutage financial composition for knight service; assessed at a fixed sum for each knight's fee

senate supreme council of state

servita debita obligations owned by the vassal to the lord

servus slave in Latin

sheriff administrator of royal demesne in a shire, key figure of admin., directly responsible to king

shire main unit of local government in Old English times

sokeman freemen of 9th century Danish armies settling in England, part of the court of a lord

South Sea Bubble wild burst of speculation; takeover of 3/5 of national debt by the South Sea Company for monopolies

Speenhamland System system of poor relief

spinning-jenny invention that revolutionalized yarn-production

Star Chamber court that existed by statute with full authority of asserting both criminal and civil jurisdiction; enabled to proceed and act without regard for common law

statute fixed, written declaration reforming old or establishing new rights, procedures, laws, departments, etc

steward person in charge of another's property management; paid manager of a great house or estate

tallage tax; manorial: paid by villeins; royal: paid by ancient demesne, notably towns and boroughs

tenant-at-will holder of land on the lord's terms at the lord's pleasure

tenure right or title by which property is held, frequently involves military service

Test Act passed in 1673 by the Cavalier Parl.; directed against Roman Catholics; required holders of military and civil offices to be Anglican; taking an oath of allegiance and supremacy

Test Act passed in 1678 after the Popish Plot; excluded all Roman Catholics, except the Duke of York, from Parliament

the enclosure of land which had formerly been waste- or moorland

thegn person holding land in return for services, hereditary status

theory of dominition Wyclif's doctrine; made to enforce responsibility; suggests that true worship was derived from God and is lost by deadly sin

Tories supporters of non-resistance who upheld the hereditary succession and prerogative; supported the Church of England; opposed Noncomformists and Catholics

tracery ornamental pattern formed by the tracing or interweaving of the vertical members in the head of a window

transept part of a cruciform church which projects at right angles to the main building

transubstantiation change or conversion of one substance into another - bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ

tripos course of study and set of examinations for the BA degree at Cambridge, where the examinee stands on a three-legged stool

trivium three medieval study courses - Logic, Latin grammar and Rhetoric

tunnage and poundage custom duty on a tun (252 gallons) of wine and a pound of merchandise

vassal holder of land by feudal tenure

vikings Danes, Norwegians, Swedes - raided overseas btw 8th-11th centuries

villa farm-complex: owner's dwelling, dependant's quarters, farm buildings, land

villein unfree peasant who is bound to his lord, providing services and dues

viscount nobleman ranking between earl and baron

wapentake territorial subdivision of a county under Danish influence

water-frame spinning machine worked by machine power

wergeld compensation paid to the family of a murdered member by the murderer or his family

Whigs mainly aristocratic party; parliamentary supremacy and toleration for Noncomformists; victorious in the Glorious Revolution

witan 'one who ever knows'; king's councillor

writ administrative letter authenticated by witnesses and a seal; three types - letters close, letters patent, charter

yeoman servant of high rank in a royal or noble house